tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-82426656939137853612024-03-14T05:57:01.427-07:00CSE SolvedLearn and explore the world of computer science and engineering topics with usAnonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14447713215730483064noreply@blogger.comBlogger14125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8242665693913785361.post-83044490644340467572017-09-24T04:22:00.000-07:002017-09-24T04:24:12.341-07:00File allocation and access methods<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
File allocation</h2>
File allocation is done to effectively to utilize the file space and for accessing files fast. There are mainly three types of file allocation methods that are explained below:<br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEitgt8mbanIUpcML2t_p7o5izTgHwY9HCgNSbOZ21XXj49LpAR_eReBrtVMQeIt_8YfF-0PqhbC54ybAmZ9TYTJJyNWnBtp5anVCJ3YJeZt9kvwbzEu1H9FKLvZ_ifer2bokipymZVXJH4/s1600/file+access.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="190" data-original-width="617" height="196" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEitgt8mbanIUpcML2t_p7o5izTgHwY9HCgNSbOZ21XXj49LpAR_eReBrtVMQeIt_8YfF-0PqhbC54ybAmZ9TYTJJyNWnBtp5anVCJ3YJeZt9kvwbzEu1H9FKLvZ_ifer2bokipymZVXJH4/s640/file+access.png" width="640" /></a></div>
<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>1. Contiguous allocation</b></h3>
In contiguous memory allocation, the file is stored in any contiguous blocks on the disk. The file location consists of: disk address, address of first block and its length. It supports both types of file access methods that is sequential access and direct access methods. The main disadvantage of contiguous file allocation method is external fragmentation. One is not sure about the memory needed before creating a new file due to which it is often difficult to find free space for a new file .<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>2. Indexed allocation</b></h3>
In indexed file allocation system each file has its own index block. It provides a basic solution to the problems that are faced by the other two file allocation methods. All pointer are brought together at one location that is called index block(that occupies space). It does not suffers from external fragmentation as each and every bit of memory can be utilized.<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>3. Linked allocation</b></h3>
In linked allocation every file is a linked list of disk blocks. The directory contains a pointer to the first block of the file. each block contains the pointer to the next block and the last block contains NIL (0) pointer. The pointer is defined as a NIL pointer in case of an empty file. It does not deals with external fragmentation. However, the main disadvantage of linked allocation is that it does not support direct access method.<br />
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
File access methods</h2>
<div>
There are many ways by which the information in the file can be accessed. Some system provides one access method while the other provides many. In a system where multiple file access methods are supported it becomes difficult to choose the right method for an application. There are mainly three types of file access methods as discussed below:</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEik2wYmcbIZ1Bvvgdn6YHcc9P_n3fDyp_1fcBWADEazH0cQ_CiRg_GaVfU6IsnrPwcdP2ZkbFLUCopn3XCY8ZZMdeabo6buVJ1kJbrw226WzJwb2rhez1YzFEOuumyjDWMIHpK8XkJZp7Q/s1600/file+access.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="128" data-original-width="599" height="134" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEik2wYmcbIZ1Bvvgdn6YHcc9P_n3fDyp_1fcBWADEazH0cQ_CiRg_GaVfU6IsnrPwcdP2ZkbFLUCopn3XCY8ZZMdeabo6buVJ1kJbrw226WzJwb2rhez1YzFEOuumyjDWMIHpK8XkJZp7Q/s640/file+access.png" width="640" /></a></div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>1. Sequential access</b></h3>
<div>
It is the most common method used for accessing of files. As the name suggests, information in the files are accessed one by one.It is based on a tape model of a file.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>2. Direct access</b></h3>
<div>
It is a model of disk model of a file. In direct access method, there is no restrictions on the order of reading and writing .Not all operating systems support both direct and sequential methods. Some system only allows sequential file access others allow only direct access.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
3. Other access methods</h3>
<div>
Other access methods involves construction of an index for a file. The index contains pointer to the various blocks. To find an entry in the file, the index is searched first and the pointer is then used to access the file directly to find the destination entry. This method becomes complex in large file when the index becomes too large to be kept in memory. There is a solution to this problem that is to create an index for the index file. The primary index file would contain pointers to the secondary index files which would point to the actual data items.</div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14447713215730483064noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8242665693913785361.post-58062670119854258652017-09-08T08:23:00.001-07:002017-09-08T08:23:20.769-07:00Chomsky hierarchy of grammar <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
Chomsky hierarchy of grammars</h2>
<div>
With the help of Chomsky hierarchy of grammars, we can exhibit the relationship between grammars and can classify them into four types of grammar as below:</div>
<div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>Type 0: unrestricted/phase structure grammar.</li>
<li>Type 1: context sensitive grammar.</li>
<li>Type 2: context free grammar.</li>
<li>Type 3: regular grammar.</li>
</ol>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgE0TNCxPfrwYrSr_UowYCLxHNcMgRzjirJmdarkV_mKu3Ace7MSFMV_MZEDDFPVl1FeE5OYjcGwxuL0HDi_Su_vTSxeYpFuVqNfH6z4foDdSn8JM418QSepcJ6-zOUZe-WXPvgOjLj-Io/s1600/chomsky.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="305" data-original-width="433" height="281" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgE0TNCxPfrwYrSr_UowYCLxHNcMgRzjirJmdarkV_mKu3Ace7MSFMV_MZEDDFPVl1FeE5OYjcGwxuL0HDi_Su_vTSxeYpFuVqNfH6z4foDdSn8JM418QSepcJ6-zOUZe-WXPvgOjLj-Io/s400/chomsky.png" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Classification of grammars</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Let us study each of the classified grammars one by one in brief.</div>
</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Unrestricted grammars (Type 0)</h3>
</div>
<div>
The unrestricted grammar is defined as</div>
<div>
G = (Vn, Vt, P, S)<br />
where,<br />
Vn = a finite set of non-terminals.<br />
Vt = a finite set of terminals.<br />
S = starting non-terminals. So S∈Vn<br />
and P is set of production rule of the following form:<br />
α→ß<br />
where are α and ß and arbitrary strings of grammar symbols with α≠∈.<br />
This type of grammar is also known as type=0, phase structure or unrestricted grammar.<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Context sensitive grammar (Type 1)</h3>
</div>
<div>
Let G = (Vn, Vt, P, S)<br />
where,<br />
Vn = a finite set of non-terminals.<br />
Vt = a finite set of terminals.<br />
S = starting non-terminals. So S∈Vn<br />
and P is set of production rule of the following form:<br />
α→ß<br />
where ß is at least as long as ɑ that is clearly<br />
|α|≤|ß|<br />
The term context-sensitive refers to the normal form of grammar where each production is of the form α1Aα2 → α1ßα2, where ß≠∈.<br />
Replacement of variable A by string ß is permitted in the context of α1 and α2.<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Context-free grammar (Type 2)</h3>
</div>
<div>
The context free grammar can be defined as<br />
G = (Vn, Vt, P, S)<br />
where,<br />
Vn = a finite set of non-terminals.<br />
Vt = a finite set of terminals.<br />
S = starting non-terminals. So S∈Vn<br />
and P is set of production rule of the following form:<br />
α→ß</div>
<div>
where α∈Vn and ß∈(Vt ∪ Vn)*</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Regular grammar (Type 3)</h3>
<div>
A regular grammar is of two types: left linear or right linear.</div>
<div>
It can be defined by the following:</div>
<div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>If all production of the CFG are in the form of A→<i>w</i>B or A→<i>w, </i>where A and B are variables and <i>w</i>∈Vt*, then we can say that the grammar is right linear.</li>
<li>If all production of the CFG are in the form of A→B<i>w</i> or A→<i>w, </i>where A and B are variables, then we can say that the grammar is left linear.</li>
</ol>
</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14447713215730483064noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8242665693913785361.post-27998664141177000542017-09-08T07:44:00.001-07:002017-09-08T08:41:30.372-07:00Features and services of operating system<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
Operating system</h2>
Operating system acts as an interface between the user and the computer. It is a medium by which both of them communicates with each other. It provides many services to the users for convenience.<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Features of operating system</h3>
<div>
There are many important features of the operating system, some of them are mentioned below:</div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>It works independently.</li>
<li>There is no time lagging.</li>
<li>It fetches instructions form the user and processes it.</li>
<li>It performs processes sequentially on the basis of their priority.</li>
</ul>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Services of operating system</h3>
<div style="text-align: left;">
Services commonly provided by the operating systems are as follows:</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li><b>Program execution: </b>It is one of the basic services provided by the operating system. It should be capable of loading a program into the memory so that it could be assigned by the scheduler. <table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisziuuE7bsJVWgd7wKsW77V32U_LR1dtPtGHDfxyHRgsf7y8_VlVcwHUZ9pZMpk8BkqKidCbnVEBBT8uI7bEqjDQdCK-919iOhEEdpM0wvwkAAnneo84GkmWsM7EoYnL_nAaNQmpaRK7s/s1600/13888730572_4bb9097959_z.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="426" data-original-width="640" height="426" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisziuuE7bsJVWgd7wKsW77V32U_LR1dtPtGHDfxyHRgsf7y8_VlVcwHUZ9pZMpk8BkqKidCbnVEBBT8uI7bEqjDQdCK-919iOhEEdpM0wvwkAAnneo84GkmWsM7EoYnL_nAaNQmpaRK7s/s640/13888730572_4bb9097959_z.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Image courtesy: <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/pittcaleb/13888730572/in/photolist-nainHW-VCXHvQ-4Tx5eE-6EQPmz-a7M7pX-793YvW-n4N6kB-jAnnSk-igixrk-aTcEnX-ydKXm-XcsMha-9PPYjx-6QjDpP-7oU666-78GKXb-bGM5fa-T6rJXg-S1AAHJ-pbtBxE-nSWnEp-Ut6FxR-6vG1zD-oem42P-TExN11-VVMmPs-dXw69d-jJqeuW-jYm5D3-8vEXkh-s77oXM-4nTQzD-fL3i7m-Ufhtgq-jP8Yco-S9sELn-RXwUGc-Uqfvon-5f3CsN-RXwUEP-49VV3Z-dxCa5n-egKRW8-dCm7Es-8ZqjGJ-btg4Xz-ecUiQx-ec9AuX-ieWnp6-Fzqq1">Flickr</a></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
The process should complete its execution or show an error. <a href="https://cssolved.blogspot.in/2017/08/what-is-process-explain-with-its-state.html">The states and operation of process have been discussed earlier</a>.</li>
<li><b>Input and output operation: </b>Any running program may require an input or output operation for its entire execution.Without the operating system, user would not be able to directly control the I/O devices which will cause lack of efficiency of the system.</li>
<li><b>Manipulation of the file system: </b>File system requires many operations which would not be possible without the operating system, they are: a) Creation and deletion of file. b)Creation and deletion of file directories. c)Support for modification of files. d)Storing files in secondary storage. e)Backing up files in storage nonvolatile media.</li>
<li><b>Communication: </b>There may come a situation when one process have to interact with another process for its completion. Such communication may occur in two types: a)Between processes running on the same computer. b)Between processes running on different computers that are linked in a network.</li>
<li><b>Error detection: </b>Error can occur anywhere such as in the CPU, memory, hardware, I/O devices due to various reasons that includes storage problem, power failure or connection error. <table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKlotBInFwcOZihYgkImbSjaqEqcXPEGUMpF_PV5uhrpRDnCFCNELaImhBNxFfxr-Fo3Z5C_2UjIwz854CZC1RCcHagIJNfXsKvQ3l7d69mbxXD-Dq3bPW9dtNTk0zusfHpa7yXM289QE/s1600/84832529_017374a4d8.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="75" data-original-width="500" height="60" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKlotBInFwcOZihYgkImbSjaqEqcXPEGUMpF_PV5uhrpRDnCFCNELaImhBNxFfxr-Fo3Z5C_2UjIwz854CZC1RCcHagIJNfXsKvQ3l7d69mbxXD-Dq3bPW9dtNTk0zusfHpa7yXM289QE/s400/84832529_017374a4d8.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Image courtesy: <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/adamant/84832529/in/photolist-8uMKP-6Kp4va-6Ktc4G-wmjjS-FEVef-7EKrYU-6XBu9W-6Ktdzm-7EFDjr-9SQ2oS-6Kp5q4-9igMsp-9igMrP-9ijSeq-9igMkK-9ijS7Y-9igMne-b9MfNi-9pe1F4-9ijSdL-9ijS7d-9pe1Dg-9ph4Hw-9igMmB-9igMkg-9ph4Cm-9pe1c4-9ph4uA-9ph3GC-9pdZuX-9ijS6m-9pe14k-9pdZwP-9igMh6-9ijS4S-9pdZsK-9pdZm6-9ph3RG-9ph3W9-9ph3Zu-9pdZWP-99ppL3-4hgcCY-7wdiJR-JaFsg-94qCzL-5Z2LqJ-7wrBPh-6LGakg-nFsPm">Flickr</a></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
The operating system should constantly know about the errors occurring so that it could could take appropriate actions regarding the error according to its type. It increases the efficiency of the system and is useful in sharing resources among all.</li>
<li><b>Resource allocation: </b>Resource allocation is necessary when there are multiple users or when there are multiple jobs running at the same time. The operating system manages all the different types of resources that includes: CPU utilization cycle, storage, I/O devices etc.</li>
<li><b>Accounting: </b>The operating system requires accounting to keep track of which user uses which type of computer resources. This feature of the operating system is beneficial for the users who want to reconfigure the system or improve the computing services.</li>
<li><b>Protection: </b>When more than one disjoint processes execute concurrently in a system it would not be possible for one process to interfere with all other processes and proceed to execution. So the operating system ensure the controlled access to system resources.</li>
<li><b>Security: </b>This is one the most beneficial services that is provided by the operating system. The operating system protects the system from unauthorized users by authenticating itself by username and password for the accession of resources. It also provides backup and recovery options in case of system failure.</li>
<li><b>System utilities: </b>Most of the operating system nowadays are supplied with programs that are able to solve common problems or perform basic/common operations such as web browsers, word processor, games, database systems etc.</li>
</ol>
<div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14447713215730483064noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8242665693913785361.post-39741918576418336392017-08-31T09:52:00.001-07:002017-09-07T05:11:51.481-07:00What is a process. Explain with its state and operations.<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
Process</h2>
A process can be termed as a program in execution. It is the smallest unit of work that can be scheduled by an operating system. Such an operating system is a collection of processes that must be executed in sequential order. The concurrent execution results in the increased performance, proper utilization of resources and efficiency and responsiveness of the system. The operating system follows and executes all the process one by one concurrently.<br />
<h4 style="text-align: left;">
Features of a process </h4>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>It is a static object.</li>
<li>It is loaded into secondary storage devices.</li>
<li>Its life span is infinity.</li>
<li>It is a passive entity.</li>
<li>It is always executed sequentially.</li>
</ul>
<div>
A <b>deadlock </b>is a condition where a process is waiting for a triggered event caused by another process.</div>
<div>
When some set of processes in many allocation strategies are ignored due to their comparatively low priority then this phenomenon is called <b>starvation.</b></div>
<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Process States</h3>
<div>
The state of the process changes simultaneously as it comes in execution. Each process is in one of the following mentioned states when it is to be executed.</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEihtCnvIBTdaTogB7Ix8ukcXNUX5Jv8G0OpIRBA5zOP1Nu-sbvCSVGASEDL98mFLPTe2mVmIuKh1U2RYZWJ_wItfcKdSdyt5NJJbyszjiWPzjh1VwUJ-fTWhRa2IujfUmf1M3rgv4XJivI/s1600/process.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="402" data-original-width="848" height="303" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEihtCnvIBTdaTogB7Ix8ukcXNUX5Jv8G0OpIRBA5zOP1Nu-sbvCSVGASEDL98mFLPTe2mVmIuKh1U2RYZWJ_wItfcKdSdyt5NJJbyszjiWPzjh1VwUJ-fTWhRa2IujfUmf1M3rgv4XJivI/s640/process.png" width="640" /></a></div>
<div>
The states of process and its description are as follows:</div>
<div>
1. <b>New: </b>It is the first state in which the process is being created or is started.</div>
<div>
2. <b>Ready: </b>In the second state the process is waiting for the processor so that it can be assigned to it. The process could be in this state when its interrupted by the scheduler to assign CPU to other process(es).</div>
<div>
3. <b>Waiting: </b>In the third state the process is waiting or is blocked for some specific event to occur, that can be I/O completion or reception of a signal.</div>
<div>
4. <b>Running: </b>In the fourth state the process is being executed by the operating system scheduler after assignation.</div>
<div>
5. <b>Terminated: </b>In the last fifth state the process has finished the execution and hence is terminated. In the terminated state the process waits to be removed from the main memory.<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Operation on process</h3>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
There are many processes to be executed by a single CPU, to tackle this multitasking and time-sharing is used which is also known as concurrent sequential processing. The various operations that can be done on processes are as following:</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>Process creation</li>
<li>Process termination</li>
<li>Process running</li>
<li>Change in process priority</li>
<li>Getting process information</li>
<li>Setting process information</li>
</ol>
<div>
We will discuss about the first two main operations of process.</div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<b>1. Process creation</b>: The task of process creation is done by the operating system. It can be done by the following ways:<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>In response to the submission of a job a process is created for a <b>batch environment.</b></li>
<li>A process is created when user attempts to log in, in <b>interactive environment.</b></li>
<li>The operating system creates a process on behalf of user program to perform a function.</li>
</ul>
<div>
<b>2. Process termination: </b>A process can be terminated normally or by force.</div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>In <b>normal termination, </b>is done with the help of existing system call by returning output to parent process. </li>
<li>In <b>forced termination, </b>parent process id used to abort a system call.</li>
</ul>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Process control block (PCB)</h3>
</div>
<div>
Process control block/process descriptor is the representation of a process in an operating system. The PCB includes several information about specific process such as:</div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>The processor in which the process is running on.</li>
<li>It includes pointers that points towards the memory of the processes.</li>
<li>The priority of the process.</li>
<li>It includes a pointer to its child process if any.</li>
<li>Unique identification of the process that is used to differentiate between the information for tracking purposes.</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14447713215730483064noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8242665693913785361.post-69827397640981749252017-08-28T10:24:00.003-07:002017-08-28T10:28:44.625-07:00How virtual memory can be obtained by demand paging and segemtation<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
Virtual memory</h2>
<div>
It is a memory hierarchy which consists of a computer's memory and disk, that enables it to operate with only some part of its address space in the memory.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj69KzXgSgq1Nuoszuc0wp7he9wqQBQWtJaFOmyeJqmWG4mDmJOL2NBZZvPl7v2GUSO9ZrrbipB0a4nJmcKWodl2xWwaxCLYV3tQNcI1PSBjqmeyJLu0FXc5IWXgX67e-9zZytkJ5om4M4/s1600/pexels-photo-97077+%25281%2529.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="853" data-original-width="1280" height="425" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj69KzXgSgq1Nuoszuc0wp7he9wqQBQWtJaFOmyeJqmWG4mDmJOL2NBZZvPl7v2GUSO9ZrrbipB0a4nJmcKWodl2xWwaxCLYV3tQNcI1PSBjqmeyJLu0FXc5IWXgX67e-9zZytkJ5om4M4/s640/pexels-photo-97077+%25281%2529.jpeg" width="640" /></a></div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
The logical memory is divided into pages whereas the physical memory is divided into frames. Page table is used to for mapping. The virtual memory is very much similar to the paging system but there is a difference that is, in virtual system paging is done with swapping. The operating system then checks that if the required page is available in the memory or not. If it is not then the required page will be swapped from the secondary memory. The virtual memory allows as many processes that is to be executed. It also enhances the efficiency of the CPU and also increases the multi-programming that can be implemented using paging.</div>
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
Demand paging</h2>
<div>
Virtual memory can be implemented with the help of demand paging. Demand paging is like a paging system with swapping. This type of paging is dynamic in nature, where pages are swapped only when it is demanded. All the components and functions of the demand paging is as same as in virtual memory with a slight difference that the page table has 1 more entity that is known as present bit or valid-invalid bit. The valid-invalid bit can have value 0 or 1 that is used to indicate whether the required page is available or not. The value 0 indicates that the page is available whereas a 0 signifies that it is not present or currently not available.</div>
<div>
Demand paging is the process of requesting a page in the physical memory on demand. The operating system checks for the availability of the page for further process. If the requested page is invalid that is, if it is not present in the physical memory then it is known as <b>page fault. </b>When the operating system encounters a page fault the whole process id terminated and the requested page is fetched form the secondary memory to the physical memory, after that the valid-invalid bit is set to 1 and the process is restarted again. In order to run a process, whole memory is not needed in the physical memory this is due to demand paging. Demand paging increases the CPU utilization, the degree of multi-programming and also allows more number of process execution.</div>
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
Segmentation</h2>
<div>
Segmentation is the memory-management scheme that supports the user view of memory. A logical address space is a collection of segments, each segments has a name and a specific length . Hence the logical address consists of two tulpes and user has to specify both segment name and offset. Segmentation could be complex so for its simplicity, segments are numbered and are referred by them instead of segment name. A syntax of a logical address containing two tuple can be: <SegmentNumber,offset>.</div>
<div>
When creating a segment one should keep following things in mind, a C compiler will create a separate segment for:</div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>the code.</li>
<li>the global variables.</li>
<li>the heap of memory allocation.</li>
<li>the stacks used by thread.</li>
<li>the standard library.</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14447713215730483064noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8242665693913785361.post-76295338567615493582017-08-26T04:41:00.001-07:002017-08-26T04:41:05.998-07:00Constructors and destructors <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
Constructors</h2>
<div>
Constructors (abbreviated as ctor) are special member functions provided by C++ that enables an object to initialize itself when created. This process is also known as automatic initialization of objects. Following points should be kept in mind when using constructors in the program:</div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>It should have same name as its class.</li>
<li>It should not have void or any return type.</li>
<li>It should be declared in the public section of its class.</li>
<li> It can have default arguments.</li>
<li>It can be invoked for a constant but cannot be declared one.</li>
<li>It cannot be inherited.</li>
</ul>
<div>
A class needs a constructor, so that the compiler automatically initializes an object as soon as it is created. It can be called anywhere in the program.</div>
</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjiwWZAOkk41I-2joBPCcKVZ_4u29Pj8KMPZJByQifzjXNj7ViBZtS8dzvsFFcqwX-xoDAtvc7u-OXCFt7ApsmRx7hJHFOTev0BbwIBtdrbzhOB1bfY4yUafKqVN7btCh-PN_pYoPBPOgI/s1600/cons.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="478" data-original-width="415" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjiwWZAOkk41I-2joBPCcKVZ_4u29Pj8KMPZJByQifzjXNj7ViBZtS8dzvsFFcqwX-xoDAtvc7u-OXCFt7ApsmRx7hJHFOTev0BbwIBtdrbzhOB1bfY4yUafKqVN7btCh-PN_pYoPBPOgI/s320/cons.png" width="276" /></a>Types of constructors</h2>
<div>
There are three types of constructors:</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
1. Default constructor</h3>
<div>
A default constructor does not accepts any parameters. The compiler automatically supplies a default constructor, when a class does not have its explicit constructor. </div>
<div>
Let us take an example of a default constructor.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
class x</div>
<div>
{</div>
<div>
int a;</div>
<div>
public:</div>
<div>
void input();</div>
<div>
};</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
int main()</div>
<div>
{</div>
<div>
O.input(); //default constructor</div>
<div>
}</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
2. Parameterized constructor</h3>
<div>
A parameterized constructor hides the default constructor (cannot be invoked) and accepts parameters. When a class have two or more constructors, this case (multiple constructors) is called <b>constructor overloading.</b></div>
<div>
Let us take an example of a parameterized constructor:</div>
<div>
<div>
class x</div>
<div>
{</div>
<div>
int a;</div>
<div>
public:</div>
<div>
void input();</div>
<div>
};</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
int main()</div>
<div>
{</div>
<div>
O.input(5); //parametrized constructor</div>
<div>
}</div>
</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
3. Copy constructor</h3>
<div>
A copy constructor copies an object of another class. A copy constructor is invokes in the following two conditions:</div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>When an object is passed by value:When a function requires a copy of the passed argument to be created for further execution. </li>
<li>When a function returns an object: When an object is returned by a function.</li>
</ul>
<div>
Let us take an example of a copy constructor:</div>
</div>
<div>
<div>
<div>
class x</div>
<div>
{</div>
<div>
int a;</div>
<div>
public:</div>
<div>
void input();</div>
<div>
};</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
int main()</div>
<div>
{</div>
<div>
O.input(5); //parametrized constructor </div>
<div>
O1(&O); //copy constructor </div>
<div>
}</div>
</div>
</div>
<div>
The above example also shows constructor overloading.</div>
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
Destructors </h2>
<div>
A destructor is a member function that is used to destruct the object. It is preceded by the (~) sign.</div>
<div>
Following points should be kept in mind when using destructors in the program:</div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>It has the same name as the class.</li>
<li>It does not takes any arguments and does not have a return type (not even void).</li>
<li>It is called by the compiler when the object destroys.</li>
<li>It cleans the storage that is not in use.</li>
<li>It deinitializes an object when it is no longer required in the program.</li>
<li>It should be declared in the public section.</li>
<li>Destructors cannot be overloaded, there is only one destructor of a class.</li>
<li>It cannot be inherited.</li>
</ul>
<div>
For example if you have a class named hello i.e., class hello then its destructor will be: ~hello.</div>
</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<br /></div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14447713215730483064noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8242665693913785361.post-52442316052540234002017-08-23T05:46:00.000-07:002017-08-23T05:58:34.218-07:00OSI reference model<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
OSI reference model</h2>
<div style="text-align: left;">
The Open System Interconnection (OSI) is a logical primary architectural model which is physically not present. It was created by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Earlier when networks were first introduced to the world, computers could only interact with those computers which have identical operating system. OSI model came into use so that computers with different manufacturers could interact with one another. It is truly a general model with horizontal approach. </div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
OSI model is also known as hierarchical/layered architecture model. It consists of 7 layers, they are:</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Application layer</li>
<li>Presentation layer</li>
<li>Session layer</li>
<li>Transport layer</li>
<li>Network layer</li>
<li>Data link layer</li>
<li>Physical layer</li>
</ul>
<br />
<h4 style="text-align: left;">
</h4>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Advantage</h3>
<div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="font-weight: normal;">Designing and development of component is easy.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-weight: normal;">It facilitates during troubleshooting.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-weight: normal;">Computers having different operating system can also connect.</span></li>
</ol>
<div>
<span style="font-weight: normal;">There are some network devices that works on every layer such as: servers, gateways, web/application servers, etc,. Whereas network devices like </span>routers work in the network layer, switches and bridges works at data link layer and hubs in the physical layer. Let us study each and every layer with their applications.<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<img border="0" data-original-height="328" data-original-width="197" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgEwtrGjkCvsCfCObyFMzPonyGPlQ-QGj1EDirPwcJ4wB7y4Dr_vLvMlKUAf6JKy6lnalpIXHM4W-roy-fMgGJ1SGH2pmnN3lldVX1m43ozjTVuWFKRV1Yrt9ZuvWn_guHzhyphenhyphena9IUiJg28/s320/osi.png" width="192" /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Image courtesy:<a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/mikeblogs/221941156/in/photolist-kBvnE-7V59SY">Flickr</a></span></div>
<br /></div>
</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Application layer</h3>
<div>
Application layer carry out functions such as:<br />
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>Transportation of files.</li>
<li>Emails.</li>
<li>Client/server process .</li>
<li>Activities related to network management.</li>
<li>Data integrity and error recovery.</li>
<li>Login and password verification.</li>
<li>Manipulates the information, redirects/re-transfers the files.</li>
</ol>
<div>
It is the layer where the actual communication takes place. It checks for the availability of communicating partner, resources required for connection and applications necessary for communication.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Presentation layer</h3>
<div>
As the name suggests, presentation layer presents the data. It performs various functions such as:</div>
<div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>Presents the information in such a way that is easy to understand..</li>
<li>Works as translator when two communicating systems uses different forms and syntax.</li>
<li>Performs coding and conversions.</li>
<li>Compresses/decompresses data.</li>
<li>Encryption/decryption.</li>
</ol>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Session layer</h3>
<div style="text-align: left;">
Session layer creates, manages and terminates the applications. On the network, it separates data from different applications. Communication between host to client can be done by 3 different ways:</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li> Simplex: It is a one-way communication in which data is sent but the receiver cannot reply back.</li>
<li>Half-duplex: It is a two-way communication in which data message is passed only in one direction to avoid collision. </li>
<li>Full-duplex: It is a two-way communication in which users from both the side can send and receive messages at the same time.</li>
</ol>
<div>
It performs the following functions:</div>
<div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>Synchronizes and manages conversations.</li>
<li>Controls logging on/off, authentication and session management.</li>
<li>During transmission, data is synchronized and marked properly to avoid data loss.</li>
</ol>
</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Transport layer</h3>
<div>
Transport layer is used for reliable connection. It is represented as segments. It establishes a logical connection between the sending host and the receiving client. The network protocols TCP and UDP works on this layer.</div>
<div>
TCP: TCP stands for transmission control protocol. It is used to establish communication between nodes and exchange data. It is a connectionless communication protocol, commonly used in all applications that require guaranteed delivery due to its reliability.</div>
<div>
UDP: UDP stands for user data protocol. It is used as an alternative of TCP/IP. It does not divides data into packets and also doesn't ensure delivery in sequential order. It uses checksum capability to check data. </div>
<div>
Transport layer is also responsible for the following functions:</div>
<div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>Decides whether the data transmission should be in parallel path or single pathe.</li>
<li>Performs multiplexing, splitting and segmenting of data.</li>
<li>Guarantees data transmission.</li>
<li>Breaks data groups into <b>segments.</b></li>
</ol>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Network layer</b></h3>
</div>
<div>
Network layer performs the following functions:</div>
<div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>It manages logical network devices.</li>
<li>Tracks the location of the device.</li>
<li>Breaks data groups into <b>packets. </b></li>
<li>Provides logical addressing for the path determination of routers.</li>
<li>Acts as network controller.</li>
<li>Determines the best path to move data.</li>
</ol>
<div>
<b>Routers</b> work in the network layer.</div>
</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Data link layer</h3>
<div>
The data link layer provides the following:</div>
<div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>Flow control.</li>
<li>Network topology.</li>
<li>Transmission of data.</li>
</ol>
<div>
It converts the data packets into<b> frames</b>, and performs the following functions:</div>
</div>
<div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>Uses MAC (media access control) and LLC (logical link control)</li>
<li>Adds error detection bits to the data to be transmitted for error detection.</li>
<li>Combines bits into bytes and bytes into frames.</li>
<li>Information to be transmitted to the physical layer are error controlled and synchronized.</li>
</ol>
<div>
<b>Switches and bridges </b>work on this layer</div>
</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Physical layer</h3>
<div>
Physical layer sends and receives <b>bits </b>which are in the numerical value of 0 or 1. It communicates directly with various communication media and also performs the following functions:</div>
<div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>Activation, maintenance and deactivation of physical connection.</li>
<li>Defines voltage and data rates for transmission purpose.</li>
<li>Converts digital bits into electrical signals.</li>
<li>Decides whether the transmission is simplex. half-duplex or full-duplex.</li>
</ol>
<div>
<b>Hubs </b>work in the physical layer.</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14447713215730483064noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8242665693913785361.post-6686259419239746102017-08-21T07:19:00.000-07:002017-08-21T07:19:33.470-07:00What is computer network? Explain network topology with its advantages and disadvantages<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
Computer Network</h2>
<div>
A computer network is a telecommunication media through which connected computers are allowed to exchange data. Each computer in a network is known as node, and each node is connected through a medium using either connected or wireless media.</div>
<div>
Internet is the best computer network in present.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Network Topology</h3>
<div>
The arrangement of nodes in a specific geometrical representation is known as topology.</div>
<div>
<br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhHPDxTVTf6gYnFv_TAutopl4Kb4HfX4dGRNwDUcqsxm5aBfmjqTPzQ7_DEzrq3HiCwp6W8x7tfX77HrFWNdAQKr_rJ8PYsQafSdXMg-fUwIFn9EwI_8T67qPyRJNLBn3dTffxVym6OSA4/s1600/pexels-photo-267507.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="900" data-original-width="1600" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhHPDxTVTf6gYnFv_TAutopl4Kb4HfX4dGRNwDUcqsxm5aBfmjqTPzQ7_DEzrq3HiCwp6W8x7tfX77HrFWNdAQKr_rJ8PYsQafSdXMg-fUwIFn9EwI_8T67qPyRJNLBn3dTffxVym6OSA4/s640/pexels-photo-267507.jpeg" width="640" /></a></div>
</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
There are 5 network topology, they are:</div>
<div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>Star topology</li>
<li>Bus topology</li>
<li>Ring topology</li>
<li>Mesh topology</li>
<li>Tree topology</li>
</ol>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Star topology</h3>
<div>
In star topology, all the nodes are connected to the central hub. A wired/wireless connection is made through the central hub to the nodes. The hub to be used in the star topology network can be active or passive. Each node sends the data to the central hub from where it is resent to the destination node.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b>Advantages</b></div>
<div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>If one node fails, it doesn't effects the whole system.</li>
<li>Installation of a new node is easy.</li>
<li>Adding new nodes does not effects the transmission time.</li>
</ol>
<div>
<b>Disadvantage</b></div>
</div>
<div>
<ol>
<li>If the central hub fails, the whole system collapse.</li>
<li>More cabling cost.</li>
</ol>
<div>
<br /></div>
</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b><br /></b></h3>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Bus topology</b></h3>
</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
In bus topology, all the nodes are connected to one another linearly, one after the other. When one computer send the data, all of the computers on the network receives it, but the destination computer encodes and accepts the data while the others rejects.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b>Advantages</b></div>
<div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>Easy installation.</li>
<li>Simple and ideal for small networks.</li>
<li>Cabling cost is low.</li>
<li>Easy to add new node by joining two cables with a BNC barrel connector.</li>
</ol>
<div>
<b>Disadvantages</b></div>
</div>
<div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>If one node fails, the entire system collapse.</li>
<li>Heavy network traffic means slow bus speed.</li>
<li>Only one computer can transmit data at a time while others have to wait, and there is no time-coordination between computers for transmitting time.</li>
</ol>
<div>
<br /></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Ring topology</h3>
<div style="text-align: left;">
In ring topology, each node is connected as the representation of a ring, there is no terminal node. Each computer is connected to its next and last one. The data transmission in the ring topology is only in one direction. If a token (small message) is passed through the system, it is received by all the computers in the sequence until it reach the destination node.</div>
<h4 style="text-align: left;">
Advantage</h4>
</div>
<div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>Every node is given equal preference.</li>
<li>Easy installation.</li>
</ol>
<h4 style="text-align: left;">
Disadvantage</h4>
</div>
<div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>If one node fails, the entire system collapse.</li>
<li>Difficultly in troubleshoot.</li>
<li>Adding /removing nodes disturbs the whole network.</li>
</ol>
<div>
<br /></div>
</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Mesh topology</h3>
<div>
In mesh topology, every node is connected to each and every computer in the network system. It has n(n-1)/2 links, where n is the number of computers in the system.</div>
<h4 style="text-align: left;">
Advantages</h4>
<div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>Every node is connected to each node in the system hence there is no network traffic.</li>
<li>If node fails, it does not affects the whole system.</li>
<li>Diagnosis of fault is easy due to point to point connection.</li>
</ol>
<div>
<b>Disadvantages</b></div>
</div>
<div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>More cabling cost.</li>
<li>Difficulty in installation process.</li>
<li>Expensive.</li>
</ol>
<div>
<br /></div>
</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Tree topology</h3>
<div>
In tree topology, nodes of each branch are connected to the central hub as in star topology. Not every computer is connected to the central hub whereas some of them are connected to the secondary hub which is connected to the central hub.. The secondary hub may be active or passive. </div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b>Advantages</b></div>
<div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>It allows nodes to isolate their priorities from the whole network system.</li>
<li>It allows more devices to be connected to the hub as the hub provides a physical connection between the nodes</li>
</ol>
<div>
<b>Disadvantages</b></div>
</div>
<div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>More cabling cost.</li>
<li>Expensive.</li>
<li>If central hub fails, the whole system collapse.</li>
</ol>
</div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14447713215730483064noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8242665693913785361.post-25612881987694405572017-08-17T09:31:00.000-07:002017-08-19T06:21:18.887-07:00Major attributes of software quality<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
Software</h2>
<div>
Since the era of technology, softwares are used:<br />
1. Reduce man-power.<br />
2. Increase in efficiency.<br />
3. Make work easier and faster.<br />
A software consists of a number of instructions that enable the user to interact or perform tasks. It makes the life more easier. There are many paid and free software available in the market for different purposes. But to became a proper software in the market it must have some quality attributes which should be unique enough to attract the users.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBYL1ovFUUXPJxhDp1MyxWwet3rHhjgpUMtuhaRBwsQLOMuzULtqNeLbZEAZ8_acMNecaJuNj1IiECzkG3M18mjNrSindXKju05TXhrkIas7HGu6Num69Ea5oGIu1Cl7NInm_c0N18IMo/s1600/pexels-photo-360591.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="853" data-original-width="1280" height="426" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBYL1ovFUUXPJxhDp1MyxWwet3rHhjgpUMtuhaRBwsQLOMuzULtqNeLbZEAZ8_acMNecaJuNj1IiECzkG3M18mjNrSindXKju05TXhrkIas7HGu6Num69Ea5oGIu1Cl7NInm_c0N18IMo/s640/pexels-photo-360591.jpeg" width="640" /></a></div>
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Quality of a software</h3>
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Software quality can be defined as the production of correct software that is required, and how well it performs when given specific functions. It states that a software is produced to serve the market better than its competitors and is worth the price. The quality of the software depends upon various attributes as stated below.</div>
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Major attributes of software quality</h3>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiYOx6SzJ3KShh742o7j7_2bgpEf4b_C_kzW3mtYZ7jJ8GVo-sa_pH_QMUCs9kHc6eXZP7gVF7oxzHznAr0Tq0xjrBe73ObkbVRwlZgu7jaQkFe9HMiRAjKO8ZlXRTpDGqHrFuwUhCWvFo/s1600/pexels-photo.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="853" data-original-width="1280" height="213" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiYOx6SzJ3KShh742o7j7_2bgpEf4b_C_kzW3mtYZ7jJ8GVo-sa_pH_QMUCs9kHc6eXZP7gVF7oxzHznAr0Tq0xjrBe73ObkbVRwlZgu7jaQkFe9HMiRAjKO8ZlXRTpDGqHrFuwUhCWvFo/s320/pexels-photo.jpg" width="320" /></a>The major attributes of software quality consists of the following:</div>
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<b>1. Reliability: </b>The term reliability refers to the term that the software will maintain its functional and characteristic behavior upto a certain period of time.</div>
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<b>2.Reusable: </b>The term reusable defines that the software must have a reusability feature i.e., it could be used further in the future to build or modify its current version with slight changes or a complete new product.</div>
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3.<b>Efficient: </b>The software must be efficient that is, it must be able to fulfill its purpose with the bet utilization of necessary resources that can be storage, time, etc.</div>
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<b>4.Maintainability: </b>The software must be able to maintain itself for years. It must be suitable to debugging, modification or extension. The maintenance of a software depends upon:<br />
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<i>* Readability: </i>The readability of the software depends upon:</div>
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<li>Consistency of the program.</li>
<li>The style of programming.</li>
<li>The form of representation of the information.</li>
<li>Structure of the program.</li>
<li>Implementation of programming.</li>
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<i>* Extensibility: </i>The extensibility of the software depends upon:</div>
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<li>Modularity of the software.</li>
<li>Ease of readability of the code.</li>
<li>Availability of proper documentation of the software.</li>
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* <i>Testability: </i>This attribute refers to the suitability of the software to allow the programmer to observe its behavior during run-time for debugging.</div>
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<b>5. Portability: </b>Portability of the software can be defined as its ease to adapt any computer system other than the one in which it has been designed. It should yield the same result in any computer system when the same set of input is supplied to it.</div>
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<b>6. Simplicity: </b>A software should be user-friendly as well as easy to use. The simplicity of any software depends upon the following two characteristics:</div>
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* <i>Learnability: </i>The software should be easy to learn and should consist of simple user instructions. The more the complexity the lesser the software quality.</div>
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<i>* Robustness: </i>Robustness is the quality of the software of handling run time exceptions. It is the attribute of the software, like: how it handles an infinite loop, calling of a variable beyond its scope etc.</div>
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<b>8. Verifiability: </b>it is the internal quality of the software. A software is verifiable if its properties can be verified easily. There are many methods for the verification of the software.</div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14447713215730483064noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8242665693913785361.post-78294287514916517182017-08-13T13:42:00.000-07:002017-08-19T06:42:00.172-07:00Characteristics and working of Meta-search engines<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjofpXP7NMR8LABqlYA044Haf5_bJxPs9AlDiPvze75BlyYj9n0XUoT52quC1TlomVrnx6u83C_0ow9wHP1dsbX4v1Z0qeAyIuf-5UXdpcf-ffpTByOCP7B_TlFScvZUbJV2EekFE08k4o/s1600/5671007649_c2b7c9898b_z.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="431" data-original-width="573" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjofpXP7NMR8LABqlYA044Haf5_bJxPs9AlDiPvze75BlyYj9n0XUoT52quC1TlomVrnx6u83C_0ow9wHP1dsbX4v1Z0qeAyIuf-5UXdpcf-ffpTByOCP7B_TlFScvZUbJV2EekFE08k4o/s320/5671007649_c2b7c9898b_z.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 12.8px; text-align: center;">Image courtesy:<a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/152257994@N02/33538703246/in/photolist-T6GC1f-9jgQhX-a2dHc-5p8SZe-8rusCd-fLxSEM-WyMAJg-8D1X47-5Df7F8-6h9m5H-4B5kDz-9GvmR2-9n46mG-5pdatG-eYiryN-pt6Vxw-5p8ToH-RPyY8e-5pdarS-7zdBzg-hvuiQ6-54ZZ5j-RqQcjw-RWS5d9-6hw4sE-ecYSe-8YpcL6-ecYSc-RPyY22-e2uFVv-7vqMwB-5qWQLF-biT8o-6kiYEe-8BMVfG-9B33WZ-9n46kJ-9hNcvx-8d9mgY-7Zi6Lh-WScY6f-psSuz6-9uDu6Y-d97rN9-d97snh-4ohfr4-7K5P53-8Az5fU-c2t8XJ-frK4mj" style="font-size: x-small; text-align: left;">Flickr</a></td></tr>
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Search engines</h2>
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Everybody knows what a search engine basically is, wanna find out about something type it in the search box, press enter and <i>boom! </i>You get what you were looking for.<br />
A search engine is a web application that is used by the people to search out information. Google is the most popular search engine world wide. It supports multiple languages, produces result in various formats such as images, graphs, videos etc. Example of other search engines are yahoo, ask, bing etc.<br />
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Meta-search engines</h2>
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Not many are aware of meta-search engines. It is also a web search tool which sends the searches request into several other search engine and provide the user a single display of results according to their sources. </div>
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It works on the criteria that a web is very large consisting of several webpages. There is no database within the database of meta-search engines and directories, but other search engines.</div>
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Advantages</h3>
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1. It access several search engines on the basis of the entered request.</div>
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2. User does not have to use multiple search engine for detailed information as meta-search engine provide multiple search results in single display.</div>
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3. Meta-search engine produces more aggregated information in less time.</div>
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Disadvantages</h3>
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1. The output display is connected to other search engines, if any of them is busy or unreachable it effects the result to be displayed.</div>
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2. The success of meta-search engine depends upon the number of search engine to which it is connected and its connectivity status.</div>
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3. Meta-search engine produces limited number of queries, and hence the user does not get sufficient result.</div>
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Working of meta-search engine</h3>
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A meta search engine performs an exclusive search and provide more productive result to the user. The working procedure of meta-search engine is quite different from other search engines. As the search is entered by the user, meta-search engine passes it to other search engines to which it is connected. It produces the output of related topics according to their sources.</div>
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Characteristics of meta-search engine</h3>
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1. <b>Quality: </b> The quality of a meta-search engine can not be assume. However, it depends on the number of search engines it uses to produce the final outcome. A meta-search engine with less number of high quality search engines is preferred.</div>
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2. <b>Fast and efficient: </b> A meta-search is able to provide more effective result as compared to a search engine in the same amount of time.</div>
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3. <b>Focus: </b>The meta-search engine only focuses on the requested query other than the related unnecessary details which is usually provided by the search engines.</div>
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4. <b>Subset: </b>Some meta-search engines provide a very effective aggregated result display in a specific field, as it is a subset of other search engines it can provide more information vastly.</div>
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5. <b>Effectiveness: </b>Meta-search engines are more effective and produces more productive results. It can access several search engines without affecting its internal working.</div>
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Example</h3>
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Here is a list of five meta-search engines, and they are:</div>
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1. <a href="http://www.dogpile.com/">Dogpile</a></div>
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2. <a href="http://www.metacrawler.com/">Metacrawler</a></div>
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3. <a href="https://www.mamma.com/">Mamma</a></div>
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4. <a href="https://www.ixquick.com/">IxQuick</a></div>
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5. <a href="http://vroosh.com/">Vroosh</a></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14447713215730483064noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8242665693913785361.post-28572382518515491702017-08-02T06:44:00.000-07:002017-08-19T07:47:44.430-07:00Top 10 themes of advertisements <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Advertisements</h2>
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In this new era, advertising has been the new way of broadcasting your products and services.One can advertise his/her products or services through various means of mass communication such as radio, television, internet and so on. There are many particular themes the main business firms look upon to promote their product.</div>
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Media of advertising:</h3>
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<li><b>Print media: </b>Print advertising has been commonly used by the modern marketing firms. It includes advertisements through newspaper, magazines, journals, etc. This makes advertisement a financial source for the print media.</li>
<li><b>Outdoor advertising: </b>Outdoor advertising includes advertisements through bill-boards, electronic displays in the bus-stops and markets to seek attention of the people. It is gaining popularity day by day, as you too can around.</li>
<li><b>Film advertising: </b> Movies and entertainment plays an important in our daily life. People want to use products and services, which their favorite stars choose to endorse. Since film advertisement is also a popular advertisement media.</li>
<li><b>Radio advertising: </b>We have been listening to radios before the television hit the market. While listening to the songs or radio jockeys we were entertained by some commercials. Yes, radio advertising has been serving as a platform for advertisements from the starting till now.</li>
<li><b>Direct-mail advertising: </b>Through direct mail advertisements, messages are send to selected people. It is widely used in the field of digital marketing.</li>
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The top 10 themes of advertisements are:</h3>
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1. <b>Prestige: </b>This theme of advertisement focuses on luxurious items. These items can be cars, refrigerators, jewelery or other expensive things which can bring a sense of honor and pride for its holders. the holder should feel royal by owning these items.<br />
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Image courtesy: <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/42931449@N07/6280074152/in/photolist-ayX2fy-9dBe4b-bkHhf3-aJP8eZ-eWYBAo-eWYBgy-byCafn-8aF9K4-bkHgjm-eWMdqK-eWMe5M-byCaEH-eX256f-eWYCW9-eWMdUp-eWYBuw-8S1Q4e-eWMeVa-byC9Lt-byC9Za-eWYCbJ-Vf16ic-eX1qyw-eWYCwJ-byCaU4-eWYB6W-bkHhuU-bkHgzY-eWP2DD-byCana-byCa6P-eWYB2h-6PPwJB-eWMdGP-eX259C-eWYBLq-eWMcEr-6QvUtq-6QvYGd-7xXYx8-6QvR9s-6QvUu3-fYqDaD-6NkXcq-6NkXcy-eWYCBo-6NkXcj-6QvUtL-6PNVc4-meBBVe/">Flickr</a></span></div>
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2. <b>Curiosity: </b>Humans are adventurous and curious all the time so this theme of advertisement focuses on the eager behavior of humans by advertising variety of designs, styles and much more.This theme is endless due to the never ending designs and patterns.<br />
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3. <b>Comfort:</b> Everyone wants gadgets that can make their life comfortable such as refrigerators, air-conditioners, hair-straightener etc. So this theme focuses on the items which brings comfort to the holder.<br />
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Image courtesy: <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/davidcjones/8119940359/in/photolist-dnwPnH-6REhxN-9gBq6C-7NqYD4-8azAsC-8nWiBt-8VA7az-2Tp9N4-apXKZw-5zR9Cs-GyJwv-5XeZhW-8VDcUL-9V5Y6e-5XaKjR-7VcaDL-7nbChy-7TmjVc-JbvJzi-8mbJM5-V32ycu-RFezrY-S4VQRp-R1V6nP-SfW9fa-gkM5pk-qLHqu-gs5twp-2vVkpu-fzkLDJ-HefbUA-844bBw-8cDv1k-6BghMa-9otSoL-apXKFo-apXKJS-KwETgm-4NLP5g-zyvUBF-rsVnGo-LHpaAm-pEMXbv-Xha9Pp-WXgHwX-8wNERS-X7VRUQ-aSwtRk-TrqyWs-dsxPLM">Flickr</a></span></div>
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4. <b>Economy: </b>You must have seen the tempting "on sale" advertisements to lure more and more customers well this is an example of economy advertisements. Many economy advertisements includes "end of season sale", "exciting offers" etc carried by business firms and online shopping sites.<br />
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5.<b> Fear:</b> One of the human characteristics the "fear". This theme of advertisement is for creating awareness on public issues such as "wear helmet while driving two-wheelers", "don't drink and drive" etc. It features on safety rules, insurance, etc.<br />
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Image courtesy: <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/terryfreedman/8979344331/in/photolist-eFtuez-6VBNjW-aM7BZv-dX74nM-6Zt6gq-6f6fke-pEmgJz-qSmXKV-5bUW7-7wTz2-9WfL6t-3ynSx-5gScZb-4ozadZ-9isY4U-zJCc-22GUza-VzF1hW-5cTEqq-9eUfyR-7zaUYv-82JWv-ji1Ui-7MqCSG-5L9fZ3-4Q3GRw-cLhS8-7Jetb-8Umq4S-Sur4-aKjUW-aZLti-aqT2D9-5icBgU-5Zs6MN-8qLGGm-dssda7-2dxGq-VvzvA-4dURnV-4QNWFJ-Rtxsub-4tLGC-Soh3i-pyrwTo-9Dj32-Tr9xC6-5scUTx-6oiKMQ-4d11HZ">Flickr</a></span></div>
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6. <b>Patriotism: </b> This theme is usually used by native firms to promote their products in place of other foreign imported goods. the main motto of the theme is to outrun other imported goods by generating a sense of patriotism within the customers.<br />
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7. <b>Health: </b>In this theme of advertisement medicinal drugs and nutritional products such as health drinks, protein shakes, juices etc are promoted.<br />
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Image courtesy:<a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/30478819@N08/34266284661/in/photolist-UcZEBp-bJ4cde-agbKxQ-TMPTLY-oqkNHX-W9xqWK-e7Rkxu-jz2NND-nwqUYg-dDvJuU-ULoRAL-8ozwGc-7tiHfL-afPkP2-aSbPCM-4gQme8-7py1Ts-nLXBDD-7obyGT-iN3mA7-54vKL6-fBryzT-9mBvAB-V491YZ-9vsRgt-cyXWLJ-nLSefS-cPvNh-nwqeka-VtzbLF-VmmdXq-7x3oW2-bVzwh1-6VWi9o-9bAVP8-djTHci-6z2gSH-bfgJ5V-eZGtbF-sX7xb-C9fMGt-9V3LcG-bKz3yx-7Qyg48-axrMpQ-cAmBRy-c4Qmsq-9paPdS-5a7vhn-aSbPie">Flickr</a></span></div>
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8. <b>Beauty:</b> This theme appeals young men and women for the advertisements of cosmetic products such as soaps, cream, make-up products etc. It includes products that claims to enhance the beauty features of the individuals.<br />
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Image courtesy:<a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/span112/3133870596/in/photolist-5LVUxE-TbXLgJ-8hdCwX-8gf4uX-WfVicq-bjU61a-73GFdM-73LCB9-g2dZt-7uQiaF-nLVKer-WfVjnS-Ty4JY3-de1K2s-d96SRw-ReKm9-de1LMk-nYG6uA-e8py2U-qXyEJH-8p8wz9-9akxer-8YQReb-cxgbrQ-WfVkDj-WFP4k7-VeCpGE-VVAtFb-4aASrS-5ckdKr-a6YEkD-66WRpH-Wjfd4x-7ABTcX-WFP46j-Te5z2T-qCsZoD-4eQKp-de1N3M-zjtPjC-irdwSC-UeqFNE-de1KPN-de1NK8-7VwuaM-4e2NQ2-zjBFex-VqtDJw-r8NNqG-iEsZsq">Flickr</a></span></div>
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9. <b>Achievement: </b>This theme of advertisement focuses on giant concerns. Their tag-lines are "use product xyz, the choice of successful people". It develops a sense in the buyer that owning this product is a choice and recommendations of successful people or you can get successful by using them.<br />
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Image courtesy:<a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/dennism2/34160178632/in/photolist-U3BQZ7-xLRf-q9DSVs-7HJKZw-5VYKnM-pvhae-UuaDgp-C9DWF-HVehEN-dAtzGK-8a5ofo-EtbaZ-pt3dj8-8Nb2ab-RVEdgU-x8Ao2b-49rDj-CyuVu-r7YWLs-oDMd4X-WNg39h-qK9SZ-6B2oAj-srkFFP-9dkV9S-o9fAX7-9FRZdu-exumeh-3e8puK-WJ7rE-RDTAFQ-8YiY97-QGLYwE-4scu3h-aiszyj-hfNW16-9iWrBW-84yqkC-a3N5Zk-dCrPnZ-RTt5ca-bTzXCK-fAcdui-Etb21-a3QYR3-rEdM6F-jm7JFk-2jbckU-95X3Ru-VpiY4P">Flickr</a></span></div>
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10. <b>Pediatric: </b>This theme of advertisement focuses on baby products<b> </b>such as lotion, tricycles, baby food, etc.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhNiAwrfrkKm0S4GCLgWpojxQFlD-erlhSnTKJk77pqdQpjTs6HqtX8PeIlJKv7g7lBDpuJ12SvSmUIVk33oK1lbTa_4sGmNZp98S7-OOOVbATy4-wHoBc0HnMtb3m0q514mEd4t3iZXfU/s1600/8472298044_37934a07a1_z.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="480" data-original-width="640" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhNiAwrfrkKm0S4GCLgWpojxQFlD-erlhSnTKJk77pqdQpjTs6HqtX8PeIlJKv7g7lBDpuJ12SvSmUIVk33oK1lbTa_4sGmNZp98S7-OOOVbATy4-wHoBc0HnMtb3m0q514mEd4t3iZXfU/s320/8472298044_37934a07a1_z.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Image courtesy:<a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/wicker-furniture/8472298044/in/photolist-dUEK3d-9M2QU4-i9nFR1-5wYpxA-4XpfF1-ij5tjw-4vqL13-4HFcHT-dtNiDR-fEwrEJ-99EHnS-89UTGa-8m9oy4-34uXr6-4Xpf2S-9Rnz1A-4S4drf-dr6LTu-EbWj-8m8aXk-82WmjR-dT4Pgd-6txAeV-8m8eFr-8mcCjy-8wTx8H-uhgj-dcitB4-pzre3k-6txAFr-FYHiP-bhRGuK-VppDuC-4Tjgjf-8mcGzj-8XUEsp-4XjYb8-ckscpQ-9frCus-8m9VXv-5v94oP-bwSbNT-dr6TXG-2nWoF9-7Wv1tr-dr6NL7-dYY9JR-6DQerc-dr718U-8mbzHL">Flickr</a></span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14447713215730483064noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8242665693913785361.post-12190089079121877382017-08-02T05:37:00.000-07:002017-08-19T08:27:09.592-07:00Characteristics of programming language<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgI-DjQeWFu2QqxkXNJ2mxXmRZDY6tsdCD_1JNCgh8l4wW2UCGF_w5ozKu81wwKY841RVvLPXsBok5gP57TEfTt9Q3aNuZ5EEZ-_PpLQIsnGylTLjavsixUowcAj35esGUqaPvuqwc-xz4/s1600/15090961835_c4f26e4890_z.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="440" data-original-width="640" height="220" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgI-DjQeWFu2QqxkXNJ2mxXmRZDY6tsdCD_1JNCgh8l4wW2UCGF_w5ozKu81wwKY841RVvLPXsBok5gP57TEfTt9Q3aNuZ5EEZ-_PpLQIsnGylTLjavsixUowcAj35esGUqaPvuqwc-xz4/s320/15090961835_c4f26e4890_z.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br />Image courtesy:<a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/daniel_iversen/15090961835/in/photolist-oZx8ca-8vEXcj-5av54z-73wwvy-7bd3g8-akqNcR-p7uet-64qbTH-p7ueu-5av53g-5av51v-9mZ2Bu-aguvee-nyfXYq-dCyTN5-5av4YF-ebq4FT-9WVQnJ-drQsbp-qwL6e-dGpvAH-d6fcxs-op6vdo-dHsmNn-7XdASo-SdBGk1-fQpDaK-hMm8S8-dLv7mB-dTAM2L-6VmFjq-2U3iX-dLAsZu-dM2e12-i5dHqp-dgBX5h-dtdDw4-fwqJXk-dJB9rH-8z478d-bQwtkR-dcq9h1-8vBVTe-UAgFcR-cCu5qA-kaqrJX-8vEXjo-8vEXd9-88nChy-cs6BwA" style="font-size: x-small;">Flickr</a></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
Language</h2>
Language is used to express one' thought and to understand what others want to say/feel. It is an important component of communication. It is beneficial for humans as well as machines for interaction purpose. Humans use languages like hindi, english, french,gremen, etc. While machines can only understand binary language.<br />
Programming languages are used for machine purpose, mainly computers. It acts as an interface between the user and computer. Computer can only understand binary instructions written in low level language, which is difficult to understand for humans as they use high level/natural language.Some high-level languages are php, python, java, etc.<br />
<h4 style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="text-align: center;"> Classification of language:</span></h4>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhaYqFwHTatWTts_YMcS0i8w2bKEqVh2XEwLo7oERByZvdLCxk52QJZLW1O0TZ2dHVz6q1RUOiGYJL2MM4xNHJub8a2QesPTYgGqh-ghXO7UCzEcrOqfvWvDDS4-cyzn9GRZwD0DyoNUCw/s1600/lang.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="199" data-original-width="443" height="143" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhaYqFwHTatWTts_YMcS0i8w2bKEqVh2XEwLo7oERByZvdLCxk52QJZLW1O0TZ2dHVz6q1RUOiGYJL2MM4xNHJub8a2QesPTYgGqh-ghXO7UCzEcrOqfvWvDDS4-cyzn9GRZwD0DyoNUCw/s320/lang.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
Characteristics of programming language</h2>
<div>
There are many characteristics that a good programming language must have, some of them are listed below:</div>
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<div>
1. S<b>implicity: </b>As humans, we love simplicity and we run from complex ones. A good programming language should be simple and easy to use. It must contain simple instructions that is to be followed so that it is easy to remember. A complex programming language is not considered good and can be very difficult to use.</div>
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<div>
2. <b>Portable: </b>Portability can be referred to a feature called platform independence. A program is said to be portable if it runs in any machine without changing the output of the program, if same input is provided. A good programming language should be portable and should support any operating system.</div>
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<div>
3. <b>Exception handling: </b>No matter how good a programmer is, his program could consist of errors and exceptions. A good programming language should have its exception handling mechanism for run time errors, this quality is also known as <i>robustness. </i>It is an important feature because when an unexpected input is entered a good PL should know what to do next. Exceptions could include:<br />
*value entered out of bound<br />
*infinite loop, etc.</div>
<div>
<i><br /></i></div>
<div>
4. <b>Orthogonality: </b>The term orthogonality indicates the attribute of being able to combine various features of the language in all possible combo, each being meaningful.</div>
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<div>
5. <b>Abstraction: </b>It refers to the act of displaying essential features without including the background </div>
<div>
(unnecessary) details which reduces the complexity of the program. It is an essential feature of a good programming language because programmers do not need the background details, and it also makes it less complicated. It is also a main feature of object oriented programming languages such as C++.</div>
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<div>
6. <b>Reliable: </b>Programmers love to use the programming language which according to them is reliable/trustworthy. A program is said to be reliable if it produces same result in any condition when same input is provided. A good programming language should give correct result irrespective to the environment.</div>
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7. <b>Syntax: </b>A program is a set of instructions which should consist of logical syntax and grammar. A language's syntax reflects the structure of the program. An error in the program could cause unexpected errors.</div>
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<div>
8. <b>Program verification: </b>There are so many techniques to check the reliability of the program. A language whose program verification is complex or complicated is not good.</div>
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9. <b>Programming environment: </b>A programming environment may consist of coders, testers implementors and so on which can effect the language making it less efficient if it lacks.</div>
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<div>
10. <b>Modularity: </b>A program is said to be modular if it can be divided into smaller divisions. In programming modularity makes the language more effective and easy to debug.</div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14447713215730483064noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8242665693913785361.post-40831038111945283382017-08-01T07:44:00.001-07:002017-08-18T13:24:06.188-07:00Explain polymorphism and its type<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h2 style="text-align: center;">
Polymorphism</h2>
<div>
Polymorphism is an important feature of object-oriented programming language. It is the ability of a message or data to be processed in more than one form. Languages such as ADA that does not support polymorphism are called object-based languages. </div>
<div>
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<div>
<b>Example:</b></div>
<div>
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<div>
"T-shirt" is a subclass of "clothes".</div>
<div>
Similarly "sweater" and "muffler" are also subclasses of "clothes"</div>
<div>
When a message "summer wear" is passed to the superclass "clothes". "sweater" and "muffler" will behave differently in response to the message while "T-shirt"will remain same.</div>
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<div>
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There are basically two types of classification that can further be classified. Let us study the main types of polymorphism:</div>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<b>1. Static binding or compile time polymorphism:</b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
In this form the selection of the function invocation is decided at the time of compilation.It is also known as early binding, meaning that the object is bound to its function call at compile time. It can further be divided into:</div>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
</div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><b>Function overloading: </b>When there are more than one function of the same name then the function is said to be overloaded. The function overloaded comes under static binding because when the function is called the compiler decides which one of the function is to be used.</li>
<li><b>Operator overloading: </b>In operator overloading, an operator is overloaded so that is gets user defined meaning. </li>
</ul>
<div>
<b>2. Dynamic binding or run time polymorphism:</b></div>
<div>
In dynamic binding, function is run at the time of execution. It is also known as run time polymorphism where function is linked with the class after the compilation process. The concept of dynamic binding can be achieved with the help of virtual functions.</div>
</div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14447713215730483064noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8242665693913785361.post-21420860980211224382017-07-31T07:57:00.000-07:002017-08-18T13:24:32.616-07:00What is inheritance and its type? Advantages and disadvantages.<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h2 style="text-align: center;">
<b>Inheritance</b></h2>
<div>
Inheritance is a phenomenon of creating new classes from the existing ones. It is one of the best features of object oriented programming. The classes from which new classes are created are known as <i>base clas</i>s or super class or parent class. The classes which are derived from another class(es) are known as <i>derived class. </i><br />
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Image courtesy:<a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/simon/109340638/in/photolist-aEpaq-bVSaGb-96YnjL-9Ueqmp-tNFJ8-bVSaMQ-bFY45R-5WfUMb-8m7JNa-8maUtw-8QC6ab-4ofNe6-8maUzA-8maUjo-9k5Lem-8Avb1C-6oPDsk-bVSaX5-8maUtY-8maUyJ-ajV6AY-FpzSoa-p1mDvq-arBaBH-X63jgm-WWPLvz-RHyQZW-cVuNxh-W2onHb-DaFfCp-TrLNA1-fBg74s-eosKJ8-RL9B5a-RHyR3G-8PmkYJ-UCtXJ1-6vmt7k-at9LJD-qL4ptZ-8PmjZW-o8APXn-8m7JXk-8m7JWM-8m7JSv-8m7JQg-8m7JMn-8maUph-8maUwQ-8m7JTK">Flickr</a></span></div>
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Advantages of inheritance:</h3>
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<li>Saves time and efforts: Inheritance <i>saves time and efforts</i> of the user as the programmer need not write the repeated codes again and again.</li>
<li>Reusability: The class once created by the programmer <i>can be repetitively used</i> in any part of the program.</li>
<li>Reliability: Increases the reliability of the program.</li>
<li>User can create as many derived classes while making desired changes in each class.</li>
<li>Debugging:Inheritance allows the opportunity to identify the problem as it is easy to debug a program when it is divided into parts.</li>
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Disadvantages of inheritance:</h3>
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<li>Usage of inheritance makes the program more complicated.</li>
<li>The base class and derived class are tightly coupled and cannot be used independently.</li>
<li>Any change in the superclass affects all the derived classes as well.</li>
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Types of inheritance:</h3>
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1. Single inheritance: <span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">It is the ability of a de</span></span><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">rived class to inherit its properties from its parent class.</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh6hVXdBmzBX0Gnl1NiO4x8Y8kYP9_ty3qbdFiGXTZUPgI-7HlJIsSEL6cvj4OKGhO-m1U-S2WzJ4BSP74NjZwTRhCT4adud6Xv9e5LwUHQCT8XAh7eqiwpVKYDrIIP-Qqn1MZez_i2K58/s1600/single+inheritance.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="310" data-original-width="267" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh6hVXdBmzBX0Gnl1NiO4x8Y8kYP9_ty3qbdFiGXTZUPgI-7HlJIsSEL6cvj4OKGhO-m1U-S2WzJ4BSP74NjZwTRhCT4adud6Xv9e5LwUHQCT8XAh7eqiwpVKYDrIIP-Qqn1MZez_i2K58/s320/single+inheritance.jpg" width="273" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">The process of creating a new class from a base class is known as <i>single inheritance </i>and the derived class is known as <i>singly derived class.</i></span></span></div>
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2. Multi-level inheritance: <span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">In multi-level inheritance a derived class becomes parent class of another derived class. as shown in figure class B is inherited by class A and is the parent class of class C.</span></span></div>
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3. Hierarchical inheritance: <span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">In hierarchical inheritance one base class serves as parent class for more than one derived class.</span></span></div>
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4. Multiple inheritance:<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"> In multiple inheritance a derived class id derived from more than one base class.</span></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiEitFuuImSEMcWmJny-WcC9fXLYoLH-W3WBEkd1GB-uIQ4tSCIqtWD9TbUSrg2tUcNsMrtOLu6AkxYmOpN201OwWPqq2wGJc4YLs73jZ9ei5l8iKqOUGb67IgAx13_mnV28QsVENxs1Bc/s1600/multiple.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="413" data-original-width="267" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiEitFuuImSEMcWmJny-WcC9fXLYoLH-W3WBEkd1GB-uIQ4tSCIqtWD9TbUSrg2tUcNsMrtOLu6AkxYmOpN201OwWPqq2wGJc4YLs73jZ9ei5l8iKqOUGb67IgAx13_mnV28QsVENxs1Bc/s320/multiple.png" width="206" /></a></div>
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5. Hybrid inheritance: <span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">It is a combination of multiple and hierarchical inheritance. As shown in figure class A,B and C exhibits hierarchical inheritance whereas class B, C and D exhibits multiple inheritance.</span></span></div>
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